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(詳細はscience, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other.〔Robert K. Merton, "Resistance to the Systematic Study of Multiple Discoveries in Science", ''European Journal of Sociology'', 4:237–82, 1963. Reprinted in Robert K. Merton, ''The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations'', Chicago, University of Chicago Press,1973, pp. 371–82. ()〕 "Sometimes the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before."〔Robert K. Merton, ''The Sociology of Science'', 1973.〕 Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and others, described by A. Rupert Hall;〔A. Rupert Hall, ''Philosophers at War'', New York, Cambridge University Press, 1980.〕 the 18th-century discovery of oxygen by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and others; and the theory of the evolution of species, independently advanced in the 19th century by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Multiple independent discovery, however, is not limited to only a few historic instances involving giants of scientific research. Merton believed that it is multiple discoveries, rather than unique ones, that represent the ''common'' pattern in science.〔Robert K. Merton, "Singletons and Multiples in Scientific Discovery: a Chapter in the Sociology of Science", ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'', 105: 470–86, 1961. Reprinted in Robert K. Merton, ''The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations'', Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1973, pp. 343–70.〕 Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together.〔Robert K. Merton, ''On Social Structure and Science'', p. 307.〕 Merton's hypothesis is also discussed extensively in Harriet Zuckerman's ''Scientific Elite''.〔Harriet Zuckerman, ''Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States'', Free Press, 1979.〕 A distinction is drawn between a discovery and an invention, as discussed for example by Bolesław Prus. However, since the same phenomenon of multiplicity occurs in relation to both disoveries and inventions, this article lists both multiple discoveries and multiple ''inventions''. ==13th century== * 1242first description of the function of pulmonary circulation, in Egypt, by Ibn al-Nafis. Later independently rediscovered by the Europeans, Michael Servetus (1553) and William Harvey (1616). 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「List of multiple discoveries」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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